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12th-century renaissance; Part 6 - Muslim scholars
Meanwhile, in the Muslim lands, all sorts of philosophical and scientific advances had been occurring for several hundred years, with the West slowly becoming aware of them. [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/science.htm]. Many of these scholars, Moor and Jew, lived in the Iberian Peninsula, during what has been called the “Golden Age of Spanish Jewry.” Whether one agrees with this description or not, it certainly wasn’t so golden a time for Jewish women, whose rabbis forbade them to study Torah or perform any of the men’s mitzvot, and who for the most part did not participate in commerce or synagogue life.
The earliest known Muslim scholar, al-Khawarizmi, lived in the 9th century. His work on algebra initiated the subject in a systematic form and he developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations. The very name Algebra has been derived from his famous book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. His arithmetic synthesized Greek and Hindu knowledge as well as introducing the Indian system of numerals (now generally known as Arabic numerals). His own contributions included the use of zero, operations on fractions, and the decimal system, so that the overall system of numerals, 'algorithm' or 'algorizm' is named after him. It was through his work that the system of numerals was first introduced to Arabs and later to Europe.
Another early scholar was al-Basri [11th century Persia], who discovered Fermat's principle of least time and Newton's first law of motion, described the attraction between masses and was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity. He also discovered that the heavenly bodies were accountable to the laws of physics, presented the earliest critique and reform of the Ptolemaic model, first stated Wilson's theorem in number theory, pioneered analytic geometry, and proved the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus. His optical research laid the foundations for the later development of telescopic astronomy.
The glory of Toledo in the 11th century was the development of exact sciences. The leading mathematician and the foremost astronomer of this time was al-Zarqali [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=729]. Here also lived mathematicians al-Waqqadi and al-Tugibi, as well as astronomers/geometers Ibn al-Attar and Ibn Hamis. Cordoba produced philosopher ibn Rushd, author of several commentaries on Aristotle, while Saragossa native ibn Bajjah, whose many scientific works have not survived, had his astronomy and physics preserved by Maimonides. Each of these Andalusian scholars criticized the Ptolemaic model of Earth-centric planetary motion, and some suggested that the inner planets, Venus and Mercury, might actually orbit the sun. Interestingly, a solar-centric model for all the planets, including Earth, was being investigated, but would eventually be proven by an Arab astronomer a few centuries later [well before Copernicus].
Not all scholars in Andalusia were Muslims. Jews too were scientists and philosophers. More on them in my next post.
The earliest known Muslim scholar, al-Khawarizmi, lived in the 9th century. His work on algebra initiated the subject in a systematic form and he developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations. The very name Algebra has been derived from his famous book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. His arithmetic synthesized Greek and Hindu knowledge as well as introducing the Indian system of numerals (now generally known as Arabic numerals). His own contributions included the use of zero, operations on fractions, and the decimal system, so that the overall system of numerals, 'algorithm' or 'algorizm' is named after him. It was through his work that the system of numerals was first introduced to Arabs and later to Europe.
Another early scholar was al-Basri [11th century Persia], who discovered Fermat's principle of least time and Newton's first law of motion, described the attraction between masses and was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity. He also discovered that the heavenly bodies were accountable to the laws of physics, presented the earliest critique and reform of the Ptolemaic model, first stated Wilson's theorem in number theory, pioneered analytic geometry, and proved the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus. His optical research laid the foundations for the later development of telescopic astronomy.
The glory of Toledo in the 11th century was the development of exact sciences. The leading mathematician and the foremost astronomer of this time was al-Zarqali [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=729]. Here also lived mathematicians al-Waqqadi and al-Tugibi, as well as astronomers/geometers Ibn al-Attar and Ibn Hamis. Cordoba produced philosopher ibn Rushd, author of several commentaries on Aristotle, while Saragossa native ibn Bajjah, whose many scientific works have not survived, had his astronomy and physics preserved by Maimonides. Each of these Andalusian scholars criticized the Ptolemaic model of Earth-centric planetary motion, and some suggested that the inner planets, Venus and Mercury, might actually orbit the sun. Interestingly, a solar-centric model for all the planets, including Earth, was being investigated, but would eventually be proven by an Arab astronomer a few centuries later [well before Copernicus].
Not all scholars in Andalusia were Muslims. Jews too were scientists and philosophers. More on them in my next post.
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